Understanding VAT in the UK: A Practical Guide for Beginners

Public United Kingdom Author: Ema Stamenković

VAT is a UK tax on goods and services, with rates ranging from 20% to 0%. Businesses must register if their taxable turnover exceeds £90,000 in the past 12 months, acquire a VAT-registered business as a going concern, or purchase goods or services VAT-free from non-UK countries. Exceptions include unregistered supplies, zero-rated supplies, and exempt supplies. Businesses must maintain accurate VAT records for at least six years and use MTD-compliant software for records and returns.

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General information

Content accuracy validation date: 16.10.2025

Content accuracy validation time: 08:16h

Certain services are exempt from VAT, including some financial services, property transactions, insurance, education, and healthcare. Exempt supplies do not count toward taxable turnover.

VAT Rates in the UK

20% (standard rate): Applies to most goods and services unless specified otherwise.
5% (reduced rate): Covers domestic fuel, energy-saving materials, sanitary products, and children’s car seats.
0% (zero rate): Includes food, books, newspapers, children’s clothing, exports, new houses, and public transport.

VAT Registration

A business must register for VAT if:

Taxable turnover exceeds or is likely to exceed £90,000 in the past 12 months (checked monthly).
A VAT-registered business is acquired as a going concern (TOGC).
Goods or services are purchased VAT-free from non-UK countries (self-supply). Businesses below the threshold may voluntarily register. Taxable turnover is total income, not just profit. Late registration incurs fines.

Future Test

If a business expects taxable supplies to exceed £90,000 in the next 30 days, it must register immediately.

Exceptions

VAT is not charged on:

Supplies by unregistered businesses not required to register.
Zero-rated supplies.
Supplies made outside the UK.
Exempt supplies.

Exempt and Zero-Rated Supplies

Exempt: Businesses making only exempt supplies cannot register for VAT and may not reclaim all input tax if registered.
Zero-rated: Businesses making only zero-rated supplies may choose to register for VAT, often beneficial for reclaiming input tax.

Input and Output Tax

Input tax: VAT paid to suppliers on goods/services, reclaimable by registered businesses.
Output tax: VAT charged on sales, collected from customers.

Simplified VAT Schemes for Small Businesses

Cash Accounting Scheme
Annual Accounting Scheme
Flat Rate Scheme
Margin schemes for second-hand goods
Global Accounting
Retail VAT schemes
Tour Operators’ Margin Scheme
Bad Debt Relief

VAT Calculation

Add VAT to sales by multiplying the sale amount by the VAT rate and adding it to the sale value.
Output tax: Total VAT on sales for a VAT period.
Input tax: Total VAT paid to suppliers (e.g., stock, repairs, rent).
VAT return: Output tax minus input tax determines the amount payable to or reclaimable from HMRC.

Records

Businesses must keep accurate VAT records for at least six years, including:

Sales and purchases (with adjustments like credit notes).
VAT charged/paid, imports, exports, and personal use of supplies.
All invoices issued/received.
A VAT account showing input/output tax calculations. Inaccurate records can lead to penalties.

Making Tax Digital (MTD)

Certain businesses must use MTD-compliant software for VAT records and returns.

Time of Supply (Tax Point)

Determines when VAT is due.

VAT Returns

VAT-registered businesses submit returns (usually quarterly or monthly) summarizing:

Sales total (excluding VAT).

Output tax, including VAT on other taxable transactions (e.g., barters, personal use).
Purchase value (excluding VAT).
Claimable input tax.
Total VAT payable/reclaimable.
Online returns and payments are due one month and seven days after the VAT period ends. Direct debit payments are collected three days later.

Understanding VAT in the UK: A Practical Guide for Beginners

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